De la ironía a la desesperación: un modelo «orgánico» de estrategias de resistencia en la era de la vigilancia y el big data

Autores/as

Resumen

La resistencia es nodal, interseccional y opera como una multitud. En la era de la vigilancia y el big data, nuestro objetivo es comprender las estrategias y tácticas de resistencia más allá de los actores que las llevan a cabo. Proponemos un modelo para interpretar los enfoques de la resistencia, las asimetrías de poder entre los distintos actores y la incorporación de respuestas de justicia social. El modelo plantea cuatro estrategias principales: a) irónica, basada en la comunicación y la estética; b) deliberativa, construida sobre la cooperación; c) agonística, arraigada en la confrontación; y d) desesperada, basada en el conflicto abierto y directo, provocado por el descontento de una multitud que actúa como actor unificado. Este modelo avanza desde las reflexiones e iniciativas individuales a favor de los valores democráticos hasta la reivindicación colectiva —y a veces violenta— de un nuevo orden social. Existen dos escalas en las que puede operar este poder de resistencia: el nivel micro-macro en las políticas y el nivel excepcional-generativo de cambio social, lo que permite vincular los estudios de vigilancia a otras agendas sociales. Nuestros resultados evidencian que las estrategias muestran un sentido orgánico y ecológico de interdependencia en lugar de servirse de tácticas aisladas. De hecho, cuando las cuatro estrategias se maximizan en un momento dado, se crean las condiciones idóneas para una situación «perfecta» de resistencia, capaz de producir cambios profundos en diversos órdenes sociopolíticos.

Palabras clave

resistencia, estrategias, big data, vigilancia, justicia de los datos, hacktivismo

Citas

ADDLEY, E. & HALLIDAY, J. (2010, December 9). “WikiLeaks supporters disrupt Visa and MasterCard sites in ‘Operation Payback’”. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/08/wikileaks-visa-mastercard-operation-payback

ARENDT, H. (1958). The human condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

BALL, K. (2005). “Organization, surveillance and the body: Towards a politics of re-sistance”. Organization, 12(1), 89-108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508405048578 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508405048578

BAUMAN, Z., BIGO, D., ESTEVES, P., GUILD, E., JABRI, V., LYON, D. & WALKER, R. B. J. (2014). “After Snowden: Rethinking the impact of surveillance”. International Political Sociology, 8(2), 121-144. https://doi.org/10.1111/ips.12048 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ips.12048

BENKLER, Y. (2006). The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Mar-kets and Freedom. New Haven: Yale University Press.

BJOLA, C. & PAMMENT, J. (2018). Countering online propaganda and extremism: the dark side of digital diplomacy. London: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351264082

BOWRING, F. (2004). “From the mass worker to the multitude: A theoretical contextuali-sation of Hardt and Negri’s Empire”. Capital & Class, 28(2), 101-132. https://doi.org/10.1177/030981680408300105 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030981680408300105

BROOKS, R. R., YU, L., OZCELIK, I., OAKLEY, J. & TUSING, N. (2021). “Distributed denial of service (DDoS): a history”. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 44(2), 44-54. http://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.2021.3072582 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/MAHC.2021.3072582

BURGOS, A. (2016). Political philosophy and political action: Imperatives of resistance. Rowman & Littlefield.

CAPPELLI, M. L. (2020). “Black Lives Matter: The emotional and racial dynamics of the George Floyd protest graffiti”. Advances in Applied Sociology, 9(10), 323-347. https://doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2020.109020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2020.109020

COULDRY, N. & MEJIAS, U. A. (2020). The costs of connection: How data are colo-nizing human life and appropriating it for capitalism. Stanford: Stanford Universi-ty Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781503609754

CHERTOFF, M. (2017). “A public policy perspective of the dark web”. Journal of Cyber Policy, 2(1), 26-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2017.1298643 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2017.1298643

CINNAMON, J. (2020). “Attack the Data: Agency, Power, and Technopolitics in South African Data Activism”. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 110(3), 623-639. https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2019.1644991 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2019.1644991

COLEBROOK, C. (2001). “Certeau and Foucault: tactics and strategic essentialism”. The South Atlantic Quarterly, 100(2), 543-574. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-100-2-543

COLEMAN, G. (2015). Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy. The many faces of anony-mous. London: Verso.

COLLIER, B. (2020). “The power to structure: exploring social worlds of privacy, tech-nology and power in the Tor Project”. Information, Communication & Society, 24(12), 1728-1744. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1732440 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1732440

DA SILVEIRA, S. A. (2013). “Aaron Swartz and the Battles for Freedom of Knowledge”. Sur: International journal on human rights, 10(18), 7-17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2399578

DELEUZE, G. (1991). “Posdata sobre las sociedades de control”. El Lenguaje Literario, 1(May), 1-4.

DENCIK, L., HINTZ, A. & CABLE, J. (2017). “Towards data justice. Bridging anti-surveillance and social justice activism”. In: D. BIGO, D. E. ISIN & E. RUPPERT (Eds.). Data Politics: Worlds, Subjects, Rights. London: Routledge, 167-186. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315167305-9

DENCIK, L., TRERÉ, E., REDDEN, J. & HINTZ, A. (2022). Data justice. London: SAGE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529770131

FOUCAULT, M. (1983). Vigilar y castigar: nacimiento de la prisión. Siglo XXI.

FUCHS, C. (2011). “Web 2.0, prosumption, and surveillance”. Surveillance & Society, 8(3), 288-309. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v8i3.4165 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v8i3.4165

GANGNEUX, J. (2014). “Diverting and diverted glances at cameras: playful and tactical approaches to surveillance studies”. Surveillance and Society, 12(3), 443-447. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v12i3.4959 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v12i3.4959

GENDER AND TECH RESOURCES (2015). Zen and the art of making tech work for you. Gender and tech resources. Retrieved from https://gendersec.tacticaltech.org/wiki/index.php/Complete_manual

GILL, R. (2019). Surveillance is a feminist issue. Handbook of contemporary feminism. London: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315728346-10

GRAIN, K. M. & LAND, D. E. (2017). “The social justice turn: Cultivating ‘critical hope’ in an age of despair”. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 23(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3998/mjcsloa.3239521.0023.104

HAMELEERS, M. & SCHMUCK, D. (2017). “It’s us against them: A comparative experi-ment on the effects of populist messages communicated via social media”. Infor-mation, Communication & Society, 20(9), 1425-1444. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1328523 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1328523

HANDS, J. (2007). “Between agonistic and deliberative politics: towards a radical e‐democracy.” In: L. DAHLBERG & E. SIAPERA (Eds.). Radical Democracy and the Internet: Interrogating Theory and Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 89-107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230592469_6

HARDT, M. & NEGRI, A. (2009). Commonwealth. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjsf48h

HARDT, M. & NEGRI, A. (2004). Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire. New York: Penguin Press.

HIMANEN, P. (2010). The hacker ethic. New York: Random House.

HOLLOWAY, J. (2005). “Change the world without taking power”. Capital & Class, 29(1), 39-42. https://doi.org/10.1177/030981680508500112 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030981680508500112

JANE, E. A. (2017). “‘Dude… stop the spread’: antagonism, agonism, and# manspread-ing on social media”. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 20(5), 459-475. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367877916637151 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1367877916637151

JOHNSON, T., LI, M. & MITCHELL, C. (2024). “Activism through fandom for the Black Lives Matter movement”. Psychology of Popular Media, 13(3), 382-394. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000516 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000516

JORDAN, T. (2007). “Online direct action: Hacktivism and radical democracy”. In: L. DAHLBERG & E. SIAPERA (Eds.). Radical Democracy and the Internet: Interrogat-ing Theory and Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 73-88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230592469_5

JORDAN, T. & TAYLOR, P. (2004). Hacktivism and Cyberwars: Rebels with a cause? London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203490037 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203490037

KAUFMANN, M. (2020). “Hacking surveillance”. First Monday, 25(4). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v25i5.10006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v25i5.10006

LACLAU, E. (2005). On populist reason. London: Verso.

LEE, W. & KAO, G. (2021). “‘Make It Right’: Why #BlackLivesMatter(s) to K-pop, BTS and BTS ARMYs”. IASPM Journal, 11(1), 70-87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5429/2079-3871(2021)v11i1.7en

LYON, D. (2007). Surveillance studies: An overview. Cambridge: Polity.

MARKS, S. R. (1974). “Durkheim’s theory of anomie”. American Journal of Sociology, 80(2), 329-363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/225803

MARTIN, A. K., VAN BRAKEL, R. E. & BERNHARD, D. J. (2009). “Understanding re-sistance to digital surveillance: Towards a multi-disciplinary, multi-actor frame-work”. Surveillance & Society, 6(3), 213-232. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v6i3.3282 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v6i3.3282

MARX, G. T. (2003). “A tack in the shoe: Neutralizing and resisting the new surveil-lance”. Journal of social issues, 59(2), 369-390. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00069 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00069

MENDONÇA, R. F., ERCAN, S. A., OZGUC, U., REIS, S. L. G. & SIMÕES, P. G. (2019). “Protests as ‘Events’: The Symbolic struggles in 2013 demonstrations in Turkey and Brazil”. Revista de Sociologia e Política, 27(69), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678987319276901 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1678987319276901

MCADAM, D., TARROW, S. & TILLY, C. (2003). “Dynamics of contention”. Social Movement Studies, 2(1), 99-102. https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2003.10035370 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2003.10035370

MCAFEE, N. & HOWARD, K. B. (2009). Feminist political philosophy. Stanford Universi-ty Press.

MCCHESNEY, R. W. (2007). Communication revolution: Critical junctures and the future of media. New York: New Press.

MINOCHER, X. & RANDALL, C. (2020). “Predictable policing: New technology, old bias, and future resistance in big data surveillance”. Convergence, 26(5-6), 1108-1124. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856520933838 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856520933838

NEW, W. H. (2003). A history of Canadian literature. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780773571365

RORTY, R. (1989). Contingency, irony, and solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge Universi-ty Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804397

SCHLEMBACH, R. (2016). Against old Europe: critical theory and alter-globalization movements. London: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315566153

SMITH, G. J. (2007). “Exploring relations between watchers and watched in control (led) systems: Strategies and tactics”. Surveillance & Society, 4(4), 280-313. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v4i4.3442 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v4i4.3442

SOH, W. Y. (2020). “Digital protest in Singapore: the pragmatics of political Internet memes”. Media, Culture & Society, 42(7-8), 1115-1132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443720904603 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443720904603

SØRENSEN, M. J. (2008). “Humor as a serious strategy of nonviolent resistance to op-pression”. Peace & change, 33(2), 167-190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0130.2008.00488.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0130.2008.00488.x

TAMPIO, N. (2009). “Assemblages and the multitude: Deleuze, Hardt, Negri, and the postmodern left”. European Journal of Political Theory, 8(3), 383-400. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474885109103850 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1474885109103850

VIRNO, P. (2003). A Grammar of the Multitude. Los Angeles: Semiotext(e).

WEAVER, S., MORA, R. A. & MORGAN, K. (2016). “Gender and humour: Examining discourses of hegemony and resistance”. Social semiotics, 26(3), 227-233. https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2015.1134820 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2015.1134820

WEEMS, S. (2014). Ha! The science of when we laugh and why. New York: Basic Books.

WILSON, D. & NORRIS, C. (Eds.). (2017). Surveillance, crime and social control. Lon-don: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315242002

YANG, G. & JIANG, M. (2015). “The networked practice of online political satire in Chi-na: Between ritual and resistance”. International Communication Gazette, 77(3), 215-231. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048514568757 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048514568757

ZUBOFF, S. (2019). The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. London: Profile Books.

Biografía del autor/a

Jaseff Raziel Yauri Miranda, Erasmus University Rotterdam

Associate Professor at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherland, and Fellow Researcher at University of the Basque Country, Basque Country. He worked as a postdoc researcher at the University of Deusto, Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali (LUISS) Rome, and at the University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU) where he completed a PhD in Society, Politics and Culture. He has a background in History and Political Science from the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Brazil, and University of Santiago de Compostela (USC), Spain. His research fields include accountability, governance, surveillance, and security policies in Europe and Latin America. He has obtained the Jean Pinatel Prize of Criminology in 2016 and has collaborated with international organizations, -such as the Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and the Surveillance Studies Centre, as well as with local initiatives involving social and artistic projects in several cities he has lived.

Publicado

31-07-2025

Cómo citar

Yauri Miranda, J. R., Calvo, D., & Iranzo-Cabrera, M. (2025). De la ironía a la desesperación: un modelo «orgánico» de estrategias de resistencia en la era de la vigilancia y el big data. Anàlisi, 72, 101–118. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/analisi.3814

Descargas

Los datos de descargas todavía no están disponibles.